THE MYSTERY OF DYSLEXIA

The word dyslexia

is derived from the Greek dys, difficulty with, and lex (from legein, to speak), having to do with words. We encounter words in their many forms when we speak, read, spell, and write, as well as in mathematics and in organizing, understanding, and expressing thought. A definition, based on information from neuroscientific and linguistic research, is difficulty in the use and processing of linguistic/symbolic codes - alphabetic letters representing speech sounds, or numeric symbols representing numbers or quantities. Such difficulty is reflected in the language continuum that includes spoken language, written language, and language comprehension.
Children and adults with dyslexia typically fail to master the basic elements of the language system of their culture despite traditional classroom teaching. Since language is the necessary tool upon which subsequent academic learning is based, people with dyslexia often encounter difficulty in all educational endeavors. Dyslexia has its genesis in human biology. While not the result of neurological damage, it is the product of neurological development. Dyslexia commonly runs in families and varies from mild to severe. Dyslexia is caused by small differences in the brain. These small differences cause reading and writing problems.

Dyslexia---What is it?

Simple Definition : Dyslexia is an inherited condition that makes it extremely difficult to read, write, and spell in your native language despite at least average intelligence.

Revised definition from the International Dyslexia Association : Dyslexia is a neurological disorder which interferes with the acquisition and processing of language. Varying degrees of severity, it is manifested by difficulties in receptive and expressive language, including phonological processing, in reading, in writing, spelling, handwriting, and sometimes arithmetic.

Research definition used by the National Institutes of Health : Dyslexia is one of several distinct learning disabilities. It is a specific language based disorder of constitutional origin characterized by difficulties in single word decoding, usually reflecting insufficient phonological processing abilities. These difficulties are often unexpected in relation to age and other cognitive academic abilities. They are not the result of generalized developmental disability or sensory impairment.

Dyslexia is manifested by variable difficulty with different forms of language, often including, in addition to problems in reading, a conspicuous problem acquiring proficiency in writing and spelling.

Persistent Myths About Dyslexia

In 1994, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) released the results of their 14 year longitudinal study and specific research projects. These projects have been independently replicated, have yielded the same results. You will encounter the following myths frequently.

1. Dyslexia does not exist.
2. Dyslexia is a "catch all" term
3. Dyslexia is rare.
4. Intelligence and ability to read are related. Therefore, if someone doesn't read, they can't be very smart. Gifted children     can't be dyslexic or have learning disabilities.
5. There is no way to truly diagnose dyslexia.
6. Dyslexia cannot be diagnosed until a child is 8 or 11 years old.
7. Children who experience reading and writing problems in kindergarten through 3rd grade will outgrow them. They're just     slow.
8. Children outgrow dyslexia.
9. Dyslexia is a vision problem. Therefore, vision therapy and eye exercises will solve the problem.
10. Dyslexia only affects children who speak English.
11. The way to help a child to read is to force him/her to read at least 20 minutes a day.
12. Dyslexia is an auditory problem.
13. Dyslexia can be "cured" by a speech and language pathologist.

How do people get dyslexia?

The causes for dyslexia are neurobiological and genetic. Individuals inherit the genetic links for dyslexia. Chances are that one of the child's parents, grandparents, aunts, or uncles is dyslexic.

Common Signs of Dyslexia: Pre-School Children

A qualified diagnostician can test a person to determine if he or she is truly dyslexic.

• May talk later than most children. May have difficulty pronouncing words, i.e., "busgetti" for "spaghetti", "mawn lower" for "lawn mower".
• May be slow to add new vocabulary words. May be unable to recall the right word. May have difficulty with rhyming.
• May have trouble learning the alphabet, numbers, days of the week, colors, shapes, how to spell and write his or her name.
• May be unable to follow multi-step directions or routines. Fine motor skills may develop more slowly than in other children.
• May have difficulty telling and/or retelling a story in the correct sequence.
• Often has difficulty separating sounds in words and blending sounds to make words.

Common Signs of Dyslexia: K - 4th Grade Students

• May be slow to learn the connection between letters and sounds. Has difficulty decoding single words (reading single words in isolation).
• Has difficulty spelling phonetically. Makes consistent reading and spelling errors such as:
• Letter reversals - "d" for "b" as in: "dog" for "bog"
• Word reversals - "tip" for "pit"
• Inversions - "m" for "w," "u" for "n"
• Transpositions - "felt" for "left"
• Substitutions - "house" for "home"
• May confuse small words - "at" for "to," "said" for "and," "does" for "goes.” Relies on guessing and context. May have difficulty learning new vocabulary.
• May transpose number sequences and confuse arithmetic signs (+ - x / =).
• May have trouble remembering facts. May be slow to learn new skills; relies heavily on memorizing without understanding.
• May have difficulty planning, organizing and managing time, materials and tasks.
• Often uses an awkward pencil grip (fist, thumb hooked over fingers, etc.).
• Is usually reading below grade level. May reverse letter sequences - "soiled" for "solid," "left" for "felt."
• May be slow to discern and to learn prefixes, suffixes, root words, and other reading and spelling strategies. May avoid readingaloud
• May have trouble with word problems in math.
• May write with difficulty with illegible handwriting; pencil grip is awkward, fist-like or tight.
• May avoid writing. May have difficulty with written composition.
• May have slow or poor recall of facts. May have difficulty with comprehension.
• May have trouble with non-literal language (idioms, jokes, proverbs, slang).
• May have difficulty with planning, organizing and managing time, materials and tasks.
• May have poor "fine motor" coordination.

FREE DYSLEXIA PRE-TEST

• Are there any family members who experienced difficulty learning to read or spell when they were at school?
• Is your child experiencing reluctance to go to school or feelings of failure at school?
• Does your child have difficulties with spelling?
• Does your child miss out words when reading?
• Does your child have difficulty reading aloud?
• Does your child sometimes skip lines when reading?
• Does your child experience difficulty copying from the board?
• Does your child get confused while following instructions, for example when playing a game?
• Is your child unable to count backwards from 100 down to 0?
• Is anyone in your family left-handed?

Signs of Dysgraphia

• Generally illegible writing (despite appropriate time and attention given the task
• Inconsistencies : mixtures of print and cursive, upper and lower case, or irregular sizes, shapes, or slant of letters
• Unfinished words or letters, omitted words
• Inconsistent position on page with respect to lines and margins. Inconsistent spaces between words and letters
• Cramped or unusual grip, especially while:
• Holding the writing instrument very close to the paper, or
• Holding thumb over two fingers and writing from the wrist
• Strange wrist, body, or paper position
• Talking to self while writing, or carefully watching the hand that is writing
• Slow or labored copying or writing - even if it is neat and legible
• Content which does not reflect the student's other language skills

What to do ?

• Accommodate - reduce the impact that writing has on learning or expressing knowledge -- without substantially changing the process or the product.
  
• Modify - change the assignments or expectations to meet the student's individual needs for learning
  
• Remediate - provide instruction and opportunity for improving handwriting

Helpful Hints

• Provide students with models of assignments to give them a sense of how a final product might look. For example, make work from last year available and draw students’ attention to specific qualities of the work, e.g., “Notice that the students who received an ‘A’ did… students who received a ‘B’ did...” etc.
• Engage students in active planning activities, such as setting long and short term goals, brainstorming strategies that may help meet goals, selecting the best strategy, and self-monitoring. Keep in mind the abilities of particular students, e.g., completing 20 math problems is as much a goal for some students as is reading 4 books and writing a report.
• Provide students with explicit guidelines for planning activities and self-monitoring during the activity, e.g., “Planning for 5 minutes will help you to… Every 5-10 minutes you will need to stop and check to see if your plan is still working”, etc.
• Have students stop and actively plan before starting tasks, instead of planning as they go. Have students state the goals of each task and the strategies that they will use to complete the task, describing their plans to each other. Have students to create flowcharts, or road maps, that illustrate the process they will use to complete a task.

Why is an evaluation important ?

If you suspect dyslexia, it is important to have an evaluation to better understand the problem. Test results determine eligibility for special education services in various states,and they also determine eligibility for programs in colleges and universities. They provide a basis for making educational recommendations and determine the baseline from which remediation programs will be evaluated.

At what age should an individual be tested for dyslexia?

Individuals may be tested for dyslexia at any age. Tests which are selected will vary according to the age of the individual. Young children may be tested for phonological processing, receptive and expressive language abilities, and the ability to make sound/symbol associations. When problems are found in these areas remediation can begin immediately. A diagnosis of dyslexia need not be made in order to offer early intervention in reading instruction.

Who is qualified to make the diagnosis of dyslexia?

Professionals who possess expertise in several disciplines are best qualified to make a diagnosis of dyslexia. The testing may be done by a single individual or by a team of specialists. A knowledge and background in psychology, reading, language and education is necessary. The tester must have knowledge of how individuals learn to read and why some people have trouble learning to read, and must also understand how to measure appropriate reading interventions is necessary to make recommendations.

What test is used to identify dyslexia?

There is no one single test which can be used to test for dyslexia. A battery of tests must be administered. Tests should be chosen on the basis of their measurement properties and their potential to address referral issues. Various tests may be used but the components of a good assessment should remain constant. Tests which measure expressive oral language, expressive written language, receptive oral language, receptive written language, intellectual functioning, cognitive processing, and educational achievement must be administered.

What should an evaluation include?

The expert evaluator will conduct a comprehensive assessment to determine whether the person’s learning problems may be related to other disorders. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), affective disorders (anxiety, depression), central auditory processing dysfunction, pervasive developmental disorders, and physical or sensory impairments are among the other causes of learning problems that a competent evaluator will consider in making the diagnosis of dyslexia.

The following elements should be included in an assessment for dyslexia :

1) a developmental, medical, behavioral, academic and family history,

2) a measure of general intellectual functioning

3) Information on cognitive processing (language, memory, auditory processing, visual processing, visual motor integration, reasoning abilities, and executive functioning),

4) tests of specific oral language skills related to reading and writing success to include tests of phonological processing,

5) educational tests to determine level of functioning in basic skill areas of reading, spelling, written language, and math -- testing in reading/writing should include the following measures :

• single word decoding of both real and nonsense words,
• oral and silent reading in context (evaluate rate, fluency, comprehension and accuracy),
• reading comprehension,
• dictated spelling test,
• written expression: sentence writing as well as story or essay writing,
• handwriting,

6) A classroom observation, and a review of the language arts curriculum for the school aged child to assess remediation programs which have been tried.

What happens after the evaluation?

Discuss the test results with the individual who did the testing. You should receive a
written report consisting of both the test scores as well as an explanation of the results of the testing. Administered tests should be specified. The strengths and weaknesses of the individual should be explained and specific recommendations should be made.

In the case of school-aged students, a team meeting should take place when the
evaluation is completed. This meeting should include the student’s teachers, parents, and individuals who did the testing.

When there is a reading problem, the report should suggest recommendations for specific intervention techniques. This instruction should be provided by skilled teachers, specifically trained in structured language, multisensory programs.

Dyslexic adults should receive specific suggestions for coping strategies and remediation.

Additional help to implement these strategies and recommendations can also be considered. If the testing was done in connection with a current professional problem, the report should include specific suggestions for modifications and accommodations related to job performance.

How long does testing take?

An average test battery will take approximately three hours. Sometimes it will be necessary to conduct the testing in more than one session, particularly in the case of a young child whose attention span is very short. The extent of the evaluation is based on clinical judgment.

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